The Rise of Charcoal Farming in Nigeria
Charcoal farming has evolved into a significant and largely unregulated industry in Nigeria, driven by both local and international demand. What was once a small-scale rural activity has now transformed into a multimillion-naira business, supporting the livelihoods of thousands across various states such as Oyo, Niger, Cross River, Akwa Ibom, Nasarawa, Kaduna, Kogi, Enugu, and Ogun.
Rural farmers, informal cooperatives, and middlemen are the main players in this trade. Many villagers venture deep into forest reserves to cut trees, often illegally, which are then processed into charcoal through slow-burning techniques in earthen kilns. These charcoals are bagged and sold to aggregators who either sell them in local markets or export them in bulk, especially to countries in Europe and the Middle East.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation, Nigeria is one of the top charcoal-producing countries globally, with over one million metric tonnes produced annually. Despite a 2018 ban on the export of charcoal and wood products, enforcement has been weak, allowing smuggling routes through neighboring countries like the Benin Republic to thrive.
Export Boom and Consumer Markets
Exporters have found ways to circumvent the ban by disguising the product under agricultural produce documentation or bribing officials to ship it out. At the same time, local demand for charcoal is rising due to erratic power supply and the high cost of cooking gas. Urban households, food vendors, and even restaurants prefer charcoal as a more affordable and reliable energy source. This dual market continues to drive mass deforestation.
Charcoal farming sustains entire rural ecosystems. Informal producers, including smallholder farmers, local cooperatives, and middlemen, harvest trees (often from private farms, farmland cleared for seasonal fallow, and naturally fallen trees), convert them via traditional or improved kilns into charcoal, and distribute them through a network of vendors and markets.
Families supplement their income and pay school fees or healthcare expenses this way. Association leaders, like the National Charcoal Producers, Dealers, Exporters and Afforestation Association of Nigeria, assert that much of the raw material comes from legally sourced wood, even approved plantations or private holdings, and the industry is increasingly moving toward regulated traceability.
Health Risks vs. Practical Gains
The human cost of charcoal use is undeniable. The World Health Organisation estimates that household smoke from biomass fuels is among the leading causes of early death in Nigeria, accounting for nearly 95,000 deaths per year and contributing to respiratory illnesses, especially among women and children. Yet, until cleaner energy is broadly affordable, families have little choice.
Environmentalist Emmanuel Eleri notes that clean alternatives should be expanded through subsidies, especially LPG and improved cookstoves, and rural communities need support to make the switch lighter on their wallets and healthier in practice.
The Threat to Ecosystems
The Federal Government has highlighted the threat the charcoal trade poses to forest sustainability and livelihood in the country. During a stakeholders’ dialogue on charcoal production and forest conservation, the Permanent Secretary of the Ecological Project Office stated that the largely informal and weakly regulated nature of the trade has resulted in severe environmental consequences, including deforestation, ecosystem collapse, and biodiversity loss.
She explained that the paradox is that charcoal remains a significant source of household energy for millions of Nigerians, particularly in rural and peri-urban communities. With over 70 per cent of the population depending on biomass for cooking, the demand for charcoal has grown exponentially, both for domestic use and as an export commodity.
Economic Reality and Energy Desperation
Across Nigeria, charcoal is not seen as a luxury. For many, it has become a lifeline. With frequent power outages, erratic electricity, and soaring LPG prices, charcoal remains the most practical fuel for millions of families. A kilogram of gas ranges between N900 to N1400 in Lagos, according to multiple surveys. For a country with a minimum wage of N70,000, this may be well beyond reach for low-income earners, forcing many to switch back to cheaper alternatives like charcoal.
Unprotected labour is also a major issue in the charcoal industry. Children, women, and vulnerable populations are involved in the charcoal-making process, facing high exposure to smoke inhalation and heat. An environmental safety professional noted that with no access to protective gear, these workers risk long-term respiratory problems.
Policy Gaps and Regulatory Failure
Although several Nigerian states have forestry departments, enforcement remains grossly inadequate. Loggers and charcoal producers often bribe their way past local authorities. Some officials are complicit, issuing unofficial permits or turning a blind eye in exchange for bribes. The 2018 ban has done little to curb the trade due to a lack of political will, poor monitoring infrastructure, and corruption.
Analysts argue that the government must go beyond bans and instead create sustainable alternatives through regulated afforestation programmes and clean energy incentives.
What Can Be Done
Experts are calling for a multi-pronged approach. Corroborating the government’s stance, an environmental advocate said the government must first legalise and regulate charcoal production through licensing, environmental impact assessments, and community-led afforestation projects.
Nigeria can emulate countries like Kenya and Ghana, where sustainable charcoal production is gaining traction through modern kilns and replanting efforts. Investment in clean energy sources like LPG, solar cookers, and briquettes made from agricultural waste could provide alternative fuel sources. Subsidies, awareness campaigns, and distribution infrastructure are critical to mainstreaming these alternatives.
Empowering rural communities with education and economic incentives to preserve their forests could drastically reduce illegal logging. Experts emphasize that transitioning households to clean fuel technologies can reduce emissions and save lives. However, these require government support and subsidies to become accessible.